Types of Skin We Have

Your skin falls into one of these five categories: Normal, Oily, Dry, Sensitive and Combination.
Each of these has its own unique characteristics that should be factored in before starting any skin treatment regimen. Let’s learn more about each type:

Normal Skin

Normal skin feels elastic and looks vibrant and fresh at all times. People with normal skin should consider themselves very lucky indeed. That’s because this skin type makes for very few or no breakouts, is not too dry or oily and does not have any marks or blemishes. Normal skin does not feel tight or dry with changes in the weather and have very little or no fine lines.

The pores are small and quite invisible which means that a little foundation goes a long way. It is mostly children who have normal skin. This skin type is often described as the ideal one since it is possible to keep it glowing and blemish free with relatively little effort even as your age advances. Normal skin ages best and looks glowing and youthful with little maintenance even as you grow older.

To sum up, normal skin is characterized by these:
-Fine, even texture
-Smooth surface
-Small pores which are barely visible
-Good balance between oil and moisture

Dry Skin

In this skin type the pores are very fine. The skin feels tight and dry immediately after cleansing and may even be sensitive for some people. This is because the skin has a lack of sebum (oil). People with this skin type are most prone to developing wrinkles and red patches. The skin is also more likely to feel flaky and to take on an unhealthy appearance because of dead cell buildup. Regular moisturizing, exfoliating and cleansing are a vital part of daily skin care for dry skin.

Dry skin may not cause too many problems at young age but as you grow older, this skin type is likely to show the effects of aging much more prominently than others. Most problems with dry skin occur when the weather is cold. Special care is essential during winter months to avoid flaky skin and rashes.

To sum up, dry skin is characterized by these:
-Very fine pores
-Dry and dehydrated with parched appearance; may even be sensitive.
-Needs regular moisturizing to stay hydrated and supple

Oily Skin

Oily skin has enlarged pores (think of the skin of an orange) and is prone to developing acne and other skin problems. The over production of oil by the sebaceous glands causes the skin pores to become blocked easily leading to spots as well as other skin blemishes. Oily skin looks greasy especially in certain areas of the face (the T zone). The good news is that the effects of aging are not very evidently on oily skin. This kind of skin usually looks shiny and sometimes has a dull appearance.

To sum up, oily skin is characterized by these:
-Enlarged pores that may be quite visible
-Looks greasy and shiny especially in the T zone
-Appears dull
-Needs frequent cleansing to keep away skin problems

Combination Skin

Skincare experts believe that this is the most common skin type. Patches of dry and oily skin characterize this skin type. The cheeks and the area surrounding the eyes remain dry and oil free. The T zone, (forehead, nose and chin) is oily and greasy. This skin may also have expression lines. The challenge with this skin type is that the oily and dry parts need different kinds of treatment and care.

To sum up, combination skin is characterized by these:
-Large pores especially on nose area
-Some parts are greasy while others are dry
-Needs moisturizing for dry parts as well as cleansing to remove excess oil
-Dry parts feel tight after washing while oily parts become shiny/ greasy soon after wash

Sensitive Skin

This skin type usually is thin, has a fine texture and feels tight and dry. Special care is essential for people with this skin type since it gets irritated and inflamed very easily. Red patches, itchiness, tingling and spots are common problems with sensitive skin. This fragile skin type should only be exposed to skincare products that are selected with great care. People with sensitive skin have fine pores and the skin itself is delicate. Even moderate exposure to sun may cause this skin type to break out in blotches or develop rashes. This kind of skin is perhaps the most difficult to care for and keep in blemish-free, glowing condition. But you can keep it flawless with proper care and the use of specially designed products for sensitive skin.

To sum up, sensitive skin is characterized by these:
-Thin texture that makes skin appear almost translucent
-Fine pores
-Wrinkles prematurely
-Feels tight after washing
-May react strongly to change in cosmetics/ hair care product
-Blushes, sunburns and itches easily

The United States Banking System

The United States Banking System

The United States banking system differs from other countries central banks. For reason that, the United States has more banks per-capita, and the banks possess fewer assets because the U.S. government imposed strict regulations. Early in the United States history, the public and government feared big banks, so state and federal governments passed regulations that forced banks to be smaller and encouraged a large number of banks to form. The United States, furthermore, has a dual banking system. A bank chooses a charter from a state government or from the U.S. federal government. A charter is a document that legally establishes a corporation and allows a financial institution to participate in banking activities. A national bank receives a charter from the federal government, while a state bank receives a charter from a state government.

If a bank receives a charter from the federal government, then three government agencies can regulate that bank, which are:

-Comptroller of the Currency, an office in the U.S. Treasury Department, regulates national banks. This office also grants charters on behalf of the U.S. federal government, and it requires national banks to be members of the Federal Reserve and Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation. As of 2010, the United States had roughly 1,500 national banks and 50 foreign national banks.

-Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) insures deposits at member banks. If this agency insures, then it also regulates. As of 2009, the FDIC had 8,195 member banks.

-Federal Reserve System (Fed) is the central bank of the United States and the lender of the last resort. When a bank encounters financial difficulties and cannot receive a loan from other financial institutions, then the bank can ask the Fed for a loan. Moreover, the Fed regulates banks.

A state-chartered bank could have fewer regulations. A state government agency regulates its state banks, and many states require their banks to join the Fed and/or FDIC. Therefore, a state bank could have one or more regulatory agencies to deal with. U.S. government imposed another restriction upon the U.S. banking industry – the McFadden Act.

The McFadden Act prohibited a commercial bank from opening a branch in another state. This law put national and state banks on equal footing and helped foster competition. However, this law kept small inefficient banks in business, causing the United States to have the largest number of banks in the world. The United States had 14,217 banks in 1986, which fell to 9,459 banks by 2010.

Some states imposed more restrictions upon their banks than other states. For example, some states had imposed unit banking that restricted a bank to one geographic location. Unit banking restricts a bank to a single geographical location, such as in one city, and the bank cannot branch to other cities. Currently, no states enforce unit banking. Furthermore, branch banking allows a bank to have two or more banking offices owned by a single banking corporation within a geographical area. Geographic area can be a city, county, or statewide.

Currently, 45 states allow statewide branch banking. Different institutions evolved in the United States that differ from commercial banks. They include savings institutions and credit unions, and they are not commercial banks. Thus, they have their own regulatory agencies. These institutions either have a charter from the federal government or a state government. The Federal Home Loan Bank System (FHLBS) is a U.S. government agency similar to the Federal Reserve. The FHLBS regulates nearly 8,000 savings institutions. Moreover, the FDIC insures deposits at savings institutions. Most credit unions have charters from the National Credit Union Administration, which issues charters on the federal government’s behalf. This agency also insures the deposits at credit unions while the FDIC does not.

Why did U.S. and state government propagate such a complex system?

Financial sector is an extremely important sector of the economy, and every country around the world regulates its financial markets. Government uses six reasons to regulate a banking system and its financial markets, which include:

Reason 1: Governments want the financial system to be stable. Banks contribute to a nation’s money supply. A wave of bank failures could trigger a large contraction in the money supply, shrinking the economy and triggering a severe recession. Many economists believe the Great Depression would not be severe if a wave of bank failures had not swept across the country.

Reason 2: Money supply and financial markets are intertwined. If the central bank uses the money supply to influence the inflation, business cycle, or interest rates, the central bank also affects the financial markets. Consequently, central banks need government regulations to control monetary policy effectively and help achieve low inflation and low unemployment.

Reason 3: The U. S. government wants to promote efficiency in the financial inter mediation process.

Reason 4: The U.S. government wants to provide low-cost financing for home buyers. This desire led to the U.S. Housing Bubble that occurred between 1997 and 2007.

Reason 5: Financial markets depend on accurate information. Governments ensure borrowers provide accurate information to investors. In the United States, the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) requires publicly traded companies (i.e. a company sells stock to the public) to disclose financial information based on acceptable accounting standards.

Reason 6: The U.S. government wants to protect consumers. Financial system, such as a bank can be very complicated. Many depositors do not understand the financial instruments, and therefore, they are not able to gauge the soundness of the institution or make rational decisions. In a competitive market like TVs, DVDs, computers, and cell phones, the consumers can easily evaluate and compare different products.

What are viruses?

Are viruses cellular beings?

Viruses are considered living beings but they do not have cellular structure. There is some controversy regarding their classification as living beings. Their characteristics of self-reproduction and of having genetic material however reinforce that classification.

What is the basic structure of a virus?

Viruses are constituted of genetic material (DNA or RNA) covered by a protein capsule also known as a capsid. Some viruses, like HIV, have in addition an external envelope derived from the plasma membrane of the host cell from which it came.

Are there non-parasitic viruses?

All viruses are obligate intracellular parasites, i.e. , they depend on the host cell to complete their life cycle. A virus does not have its own metabolism.

Why is it a strong evolutionary hypothesis that although viruses are the structurally simplest beings they were not the first living beings?

The fact that viruses are obligate intracellular parasites makes very weak the hypothesis that virus appeared before cellular beings in the evolution of life.

What is the genetic material of a virus? How does that material act in viral reproduction?

There are DNA viruses (double strand or single strand DNA) and RNA viruses (double strand or single strand RNA too). Viruses inoculate their DNA or RNA molecules Into cells and these cells (by means of transcription or reverse transcription and translation) synthesize proteins for the assembling of a new

Virus. This synthesis Is commanded by the viral DNA or RNA molecules.

What is the typical reproduction cycle of a DNA virus?

A typical virus has proteins on Its capsid that bind to the outer membrane of the host cell, tn the place where the virus adhered viral proteins act to break the cell membrane and then the virus injects its DNA molecules into the host cell. Within the host cell the viral DNA is transacted and thus messenger RNA Is produced. Viral mRNA then is translated and viral proteins, are made. Viral polypeptides made within the host cell are cut by enzymes called proteases and then copies of the virus are assembled with the newly formed proteins. When the assemblage of new viruses is completed the cell membrane breaks and the viruses are released to the outside. One sole infected cell can produce hundreds of viruses.

What are retroviruses? How do they reproduce and what is the role of the enzyme reverse transcriptase?

Retroviruses are viruses whose genetic material ts RNA. HIV and the virus of SARS (severe acute respiratory syndrome) are examples of retrovirus. These viruses inoculate their RNA into the host cell and within the cell the viral RNA Is reversely transcnpted into DNA. DNA made from the viral RNA then commands the synthesis of viral proteins for the assemblage of new viruses and the breaking of the host cell to liberate them outside The enzyme reverse transcriptase ts the catalyst of the reverse transcription of RNA into DNA. The enzyme Is part of the virus and It is also Inoculated into the host cell.

What is the basic structure of the HIV virus? What is the function of the glycoproteins of its envelope?

HIV Is an RNA virus. In Its core there are two strands of RNA and reverse transcriptase molecules. The core Is covered by a capsid, a layer of proteins. The capsid then is covered by an envelope having glycoproteins and lipids. The glycoproteins of the HIV envelope are located on the outer surface of the virus and they are responsible for the recognition of the cells to be infected (the HIV host cell is the CD4 lymphocyte) and for the adhesion of the virus to the cell membrane. (CD4 Is a receptor glycoprotein of the outer membrane of some lymphocytes).

What are bacteriophages?

Bacteriophages are viruses specialized In parasitism of bacteria. They are used In genetic engeneering as molecular cloning vehicles to insert recombine DNA into bacteria. They were also used in the former Soviet Union to treat bacterial infections. Bacteriophages have a polyhedron-like capsid and DNA as genetic material. The “head” of the virus Is connected to a tad that ends m small fibers that help the virus to attach to the bacterial cell wall and to inject Its genetic material into the host.

What is meant when it is said that a virus is in an inactive state?

Viruses considered in inactive state are those whose genetic material is within host cells without synthesis of viral proteins and assemblage of new virus. The life cycle of these viruses can be activated under certain conditions and then synthesis of viral proteins begins and new copies are made. The virus that causes herpes (herpes virus) is an example of a virus that stays in an inactive state and is sometimes activated.

What are the main human diseases caused by virus?

Among diseases caused by virus are common cold, mumps, variola (considered eradicated nowadays), rubella, measles, AIDS, the viral hepatitis, human papillomatosis (HPV infection), rabies, dengue fever, yellow fever, poliomyelitis (an almost eradicated disease in developed countries), hemorrhagic fever from Ebola virus, SARS (severe acute respiratory syndrome). Viruses also cause many other diseases in animals and plants. SARS is a disease that appeared in 2003 with epidemic features in the province of Guangdong, in east China.

What type of agent causes SARS?

SARS is caused by a virus from the corona virus group, a RNA virus (retrovirus). SARS can be fatal.

What is crystallization of a virus? What is the importance of this process?

Crystallization is the process of transformation of viral components into organized solid particles. Crystallization of biological macro-molecules, including viral components, is used to study structural characteristics, for example, through X-rays, laser beams, etc.

Praetor and Iudex in law

Praetor and Iudex in law

If two parties have a dispute about a particular case, the legal solution will depend on two factors: the facts of the case and the contents of the law. In Roman law, these two factors were linked with two roles in a legal procedure, namely the role of the praetor and the role of the iudex (judge).The function of praetor was only instituted in 366 BC.

Jurist in law

Jurists If one party wanted to sue another, he had to go to the praetor and explain his case. If the praetor was of the opinion that the case might be successful, he would formulate a kind of instruction (the formula) to the iudex, in which this judge would be told to grant the suing party a legal remedy if certain factual conditions had been fulfilled. It was then up to the judge to determine what the facts of the case actually were and whether these facts, in light of the formula provided by the praetor, justified the remedy. This division of roles made the praetor responsible for establishing the precise content of the law and the iudex for the determination of the case facts.Because the role of the iudex did not require special legal knowledge, it could be fulfilled (and actually was fulfilled) by laymen.

In modern times we find a role similar to that of the iudex in juries, consisting of laymen who must decide about the facts of the case. In criminal cases the finding of the juries will be “guilty” or “not guilty”. If the function of the iudex is fulfilled by a jury, the function of the judge will resemble that of the praetor.

Praetor in law

Because the praetor had the task of interpreting the law, he had a considerable influence on the content of the law. However, the function of the praetor was first and foremost a political one, a stepping stone on the way to become a consul. The praetor was therefore not necessarily a trained lawyer. Possibly to remedy this deficiency, the praetor was advised by jurists, who also advised process parties. As a consequence, jurists had, through their advice, a great degree of influence on the development of the law.

Advertising Research Process

Advertising Research Process is defined as the systematic and objective approach to the development and provision of information for the advertising management decision making process. It is research activity that is performed in support of the planning development, placement or monitoring of advertising.

Steps in advertising research Process are: Establish the need for information, Specify research, objectives and information needs, Determine sources of data, Develop the data collections forms, Design the sample, Collect the data, Process the data, Analyze the data, Present research results

NEED FOR INFORMATION for Advertising Research : establishing the need for advertising research or information is the initial steps in the survey process. The researcher must understand why the information is needed and define precisely the pertinent information required for making decision about the situation under consideration

RESEARCH OBJECTIVES AND INFORMATION NEEDS for Advertising Research: the research must specify the objectives of the proposed research and develop a specific list of information needs.

DATA SOURCES for Advertising Research : determine the source or sources of data, whether the data are currently available from sources internal or external to the organization. Internal sources include previous research studies and company records. External sources include commercial research reports, government reports, and advertising agencies’ research reports. If the data are not available from internal or external sources, the firm can collect new data by means of mail, telephone, personal interviews, observation, experimentation and simulation.

DATA COLLECTION FORMS: the form should be prepared in a manner that establishes an effective link between the information needs and the questions to be asked or the observation to be recorded.

SAMPLE DESIGN: in its design, a clear definition of the population from which the sample is to be drawn must be established. The method used to select the sample can be classified as to whether they involve a probability or non-probability procedure and the size of the sample must also be established.

DATA COLLECTION: the process by which data would be collected must be established, whether it would be done by communication through the use of questionnaire or observation. The process may determine the research budget and other factors, including the selection, training and control of interviewers.

DATA PROCESSING: the processing of data includes the functions of editing and coding. Editing involves reviewing the data forms as to legibility, consistency, and completeness. Coding involves establishing categories for responses or groups of responses so that numerals can be used to represent the categories. The data are then ready for hand tabulation or computer data analysis.

DATA COLLECTION FORMS: the form should be prepared in a manner that establishes an effective link between the information needs and the questions to be asked or the observation to be recorded.

SAMPLE DESIGN: in its design, a clear definition of the population from which the sample is to be drawn must be established. The method used to select the sample can be classified as to whether they involve a probability or non-probability procedure and the size of the sample must also be established.

DATA COLLECTION: the process by which data would be collected must be established, whether it would be done by communication through the use of questionnaire or observation. The process may determine the research budget and other factors, including the selection, training and control of interviewers.

DATA PROCESSING: the processing of data includes the functions of editing and coding. Editing involves reviewing the data forms as to legibility, consistency, and completeness. Coding involves establishing categories for responses or groups of responses so that numerals can be used to represent The categories. The data are then ready for hand tabulation or computer data analysis.

PROMOTION MANAGEMENT DECISION-MAKING: promotion management decision-making involves the availability and use of adequate information. The decision maker often relies on two ways of getting needed information for the process such as:

1. Experience and judgment of the decision maker
2. Formalized information, which is available through advertising research.

The organizations effectiveness is dependent on the quality of decisions made by its manager. Most of decisions made by managers are said to be programmed because they involve recurring situations, which have been dealt with previously. This is referred to as routine decision situations and managers usually approach such decisions by the use of experience and judgment.

The second type of decision involves situation where, the problem is usually new or the situation is unique in a way that in managers normal decision making approach can not fit adequately into the situation. This is referred to as non-routine decision situation. This non-routine decision situation will push the manager to adopt the formal approach to decision making through the decision-making process.

Following Energy for Self Improvement

Following energy for Self improvement

I have found that when I’m willing to trust and follow my energy, it leads me into relationships with the people from whom I have the most to learn. The stronger the attraction (or reaction), the stronger the mirror. So, the energy will always lead me to the most intense learning situation. It can be frightening at first to try to live this way. We have always been terrified to trust our own feelings, especially in the realm of relationships and sexuality. Because this energy is so intense, so changeable and unpredictable, we fear that utter chaos will reign.

Were terrified of being hurt or hurting someone else. We don’t trust that the universe knows what it’s doing, or else we don’t trust ourselves to be able to accurately follow our inner guidance. And there’s good reason for this. In the area of relationships, we have so many old patterns and addictions that it is often difficult to accurately hear our intuitive inner voice.

Following your energy does not mean acting out every impulse, feeling, or fantasy that you have — that would be the road to chaos. In order to follow your energy constructively, it’s important to be aware of the various selves or voices within you, which may at times have conflicting feelings and needs.

Through this kind of awareness, you can begin to sense the deeper intuitive feeling of where the life force is trying to take you, while honoring important agreements, boundaries, and commitments you may have with others. Until now, most of us have avoided dealing with our fears by constructing stringent rule structures for all our relationships.

Every relationship is fitted into a certain category, and each category has a list of rules and appropriate behaviors attached to it. This person is a friend, therefore I behave this way; this person is my husband, therefore he is supposed to do these things; this person is in my family, so this is how we act with each other; and so on.

There’s very little space left to discover the truth of each relationship Some people rebel against these rule systems and purposely create relationships that go counter to our established cultural norms — sometimes this is the case with non-monogamous relationships, homosexual and bisexual relationships, and so on. If motivated mainly by rebellion, these relationships may be largely reactions against the rules, and still may not invoke a true atonement to our real needs.

Just as every being is a unique entity, unlike anyone else, every connection between two or more beings is also unique. No relationship is exactly like any other. Furthermore, the nature of the universe is constant change. People change all the time and so do relationships. So when we try’ too hard to label and control relationships, we destroy them.

Then, we spend a lot of time and energy fruitlessly trying to bring them to life again. We must be willing to let our relationships reveal themselves to us. If we time into ourselves, trust ourselves, and express ourselves fully and honestly with each other, the relationship will unfold in its own unique and fascinating way. Each relationship is an amazing

Analysis of Top-Ranking Sites and Pages

Analysis of Top-Ranking Sites and Pages

There are many reasons to analyze top-ranking sites, and particularly those that rank at the top in your market space. They may be your competitors’ sites—which is reason enough to explore them—but even if they are not, it can be very helpful to understand the types of things these sites are doing and how those things may have helped them get their top rankings. With this information in hand, you will be better informed as you decide how to put together the strategy for your site.

Let’s start by reviewing a number of metrics of interest and how to get them:

1. Start with a simple business analysis to see how a particular company’s business overlaps with yours and with other top-ranking businesses in your market space. It is good to know who is competing directly and who is competing only indirectly.

2. Find out when the website was launched. This can be helpful in evaluating the site’s momentum. Determining the domain age is easy; you can do it by checking the domain’s whois records. Obtaining the age of the site, however, can be trickier. You can use the Internet Archive’s Wayback Machine to get an idea of when a site was launched (or at least when it had enough exposure that the Internet Archive started tracking it).

3. Determine the number of Google results for a search for the site’s domain name (including the extension) for the past six months, excluding the domain itself. To get this information, search for <theirdomain.com> -site:<theirdomain.com> in Google. Then append &as_qdr=m6 to the end of the results page URL and reload the page (note this only works with Google Instant).

4. Find out from Google Blog Search how many posts have appeared about the site in the past month. To do this, search for the domain in Google Blog Search, then append &as_qdr=m1 to the end of the results page URL and reload the page. 5. Obtain the PageRank of the domain’s home page as reported by the Google toolbar or a third-party tool.

6. Use an industrial-strength tool such as Moz’s Open Site Explorer, Majestic SEO, or LinkResearchTools to analyze backlink profiles. These tools provide a rich set of link data based on their own crawl of the Web, including additional critical details such as the anchor text of the links.

7. If you are able to access a paid service such as Experian’s Hitwise or comScore, you can pull a rich set of additional data, breaking out the site’s traffic by source (e.g., organic versus paid versus direct traffic versus other referrers). You can also pull information on their highest-volume search terms for both paid and organic search.

8. Determine the number of indexed pages in each of the two major search engines, using site:<theirdomain.com>.

9. Search on the company brand name at Google, restricted to the past six months (by appending &as_qdr=m6 to the results page URL, as outlined earlier).

10. Repeat the preceding step, but for only the past three months (using &as_qdr=m3).

11. Perform a Google Blog Search for the brand name using the default settings (no time frame).

12. Repeat the preceding step, but limit it to blog posts from the past month (using &as_qdr=m1).

Of course, this is a pretty extensive analysis to perform, but it’s certainly worthwhile for the few sites that are the most important ones in your space. You might want to pick a subset of other related sites as well.

As valuable as website metrics are, brand names can sometimes provide even more insight. After all, not everyone is going to use the domain name when talking about a particular brand, nor will they all link. Thus, looking at brand mentions over the past few months can provide valuable data.

What is Equity in Law

Equity

This picture of the common law tradition would be one-sided if it did not pay some attention to the phenomenon of equity. Just like common law and legislation, equity forms part of the law in common law countries. And just like common law, equity is a kind of judge-made law.

There are some differences, however.

Equity

Equity originated in the fourteenth century AD in England, when persons who were unhappy about the outcome of common law procedures petitioned the King to intervene on their behalf. If the outcome of the common law for a particular case was found to be very inequitable, the King, or rather his secretariat, the Chancery, might ask the common law courts to reconsider the case. Later, the Chancery began to deal with such cases itself, and petitions came to be directed immediately to the Chancellor (the King’s secretary) rather than to the King. A subsequent Court of Chancery eventually developed over centuries, creating a separate branch of law: equity.

Fairness Equity

Fairness Equity consists of a body of rules and principles that were developed to mitigate harsh results that might, in some cases, result from the application of common law. As the term “equity” suggests, this part of the law is particularly focused on obtaining fair results. Originally, equity may have been intended to be a correction to common law, where common law remained the starting point when

the decision of cases is at stake. However, some branches of law were only developed in equity, the law of trusts being the most prominent example.

The following example illustrates how equity differs from the common law. Angela is an unmarried woman of means who has a two-year old son Michael. Angela wants to give £50.000 to Michael, for the unexpected case that she might die. However, Michael is too young to deal with so much money. Therefore, Angela trusts the money to her friend Jane, who will act as a safe keeper for Michael's’ money. Under the regime of the common law Jane would be the only owner of the money and it would depend on her benevolence whether she keeps the money for Michael. Michael would have no legal remedy if Jane abused her position. That is unfair, since the money was meant for Michael and Angela was only trusted with it to keep it for Michael.

In equity it is possible to provide Michael with a more robust legal position. Angela will be the legal owner of the money (at common law), but acts as a “trustee”. Michael will be the “beneficiary owner” (owner in equity) of the same money, and has a legal remedy against Angela if she does not keep the money for him.

Although nowadays it may be correct to state that equity is part of the law in the common law tradition, originally it was meant as an exception to the law, and therefore not as part of the law. This difference is still reflected in English terminology, where the distinction is made between what holds at law (the common law) and in equity.

The historic roots of equity, namely that equity was applied by the Court of Chancery as a correction to what would be decided by “ordinary” common law courts, explain that equity was originally applied by separate courts. A number of reforms of the court structure in England in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries mean, however, that a single court can apply both common law and equitable principles to resolve disputes.

It is a matter of on-going debate whether this fusion of courts has also led to a fusion of the common law and equity, or that—as metaphor will have it—“the two streams of jurisdiction, though they run in the same channel, run side by side and do not mix their waters”.

The main Energy sources

Geothermal Energy

Geothermal energy is the process of using the heat from the Earth to produce steam and generate electricity in the process. Geothermal resources range from shallow ground to hot water and rock several miles below the Earth's surface, and even further down to the extremely hot molten rock called magma. Wells over a mile deep can be drilled into underground reservoirs to tap steam and very hot water that can be brought to the surface for use in a variety of applications.

[caption id="attachment_2968" align="alignnone" width="234"] energy fromgeo thermal[/caption]

At present, geothermal energy is only used in areas where it is easy to have access to the steam such as in volcanic active places. As of 2008, geothermal power supplies less than 1% of the world's energy
However, new developments in drilling technologies will soon enable drilling deeper into the ground and access to such resources in almost any places around the world. Geothermal has the potential to provide unlimited clean energy for generations to come

Solar Energy: Photovoltaic

There are two ways in which solar energy (radiation from the sun) can be utilized as Energy sources:
Photovoltaic Energy: which is the process of converting solar radiation into electricity through solar panels. Photovoltaic production has been doubling every two years, increasing by an average of 48 % each year since 2002, making it the world’s fastest-growing energy technology. World solar photovoltaic (PV) market installations reached a record high of 2.8 gigawatts peak (GWp) in 2007.
Although the selling price of modules is still too high to compete with grid electricity in most places, the rapid production growth is expected to substantially cut down the price, which will make photovoltaic energy competitive within a few years.

[caption id="attachment_2971" align="alignnone" width="221"] energy from solar[/caption]

Currently average Sun power's cells have a conversion ratio of 23.4 %. However, advances past this efficiency mark are being innovated and efficiencies of 42% have been achieved. New technologies of photovoltaic cells are expected to hit the market soon: Fine layer cells and dye cells which will make solar cells much easier to integrate into buildings. New research are under way to capture solar energy directly from space and to transfer it down to earth via micro waves. Concentrating solar energy into new generation high temperature resistant solar cells is also under way and already experimented in Australia. Such technology has great potential. Solar photovoltaic energy is one of the most promising renewable energy sources which may well end up powering cities of the future

Solar Energy: Thermal

Solar thermal energy (STE) is a technology for harnessing solar energy for thermal energy (heat).
Low temperature collectors are flat plates generally used to heat swimming pools. Medium-temperature collectors are also usually flat plates but are used for heating water for residential and commercial use.
High temperature collectors concentrate sunlight using mirrors or lenses and are generally used for electric power production. This is different from solar photovoltaic s, which convert solar energy directly into electricity. Exposure)

[caption id="attachment_2972" align="alignnone" width="300"] energy from thermo solar[/caption]

The principal behind high temperature collectors is to concentrate the heat in order to produce, which powers turbines and generates electricity. This process is quite efficient in countries which have large surface areas and appropriate weather conditions (sun exposure)

Wind Energy

Wind power is the conversion of wind energy into electricity, using wind turbines. At the end of 2007, the worldwide capacity of wind-powered generators was 94.1 gigawatts. Although wind produces only about 1% of world-wide electricity use, it is growing rapidly, increasing more than five-fold globally between 2000 and 2007. Large scale wind farms are typically connected to the local electric power transmission network, with smaller turbines being used to provide electricity to isolated locations. Smaller turbines can be used to provide electricity to isolated locations.

[caption id="attachment_2973" align="alignnone" width="300"] energy from wind[/caption]

Wind energy as a power source is a viable alternative to fossil fuels, as it is plentiful, renewable, widely distributed, clean, and produces lower greenhouse gas emissions. New research is underway to capture altitude wind which is more constant and would provide a continuous unlimited supply of clean energy.

Hydroelectric Energy

Hydroelectricity is electricity generated by hydro power, the production of power through use of the gravitational force of falling or flowing water. It is the most widely used form of renewable energy
Once a hydroelectric complex is constructed, the project produces no direct waste, and has a considerably different output level of the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide (CO2) than fossil fuel powered energy plants (significant amounts of GHG are release during the construction when forests are flooded and gas such as methane emitted during the decay of organic matter).

[caption id="attachment_2969" align="alignnone" width="238"] energy hydro electric[/caption]

Worldwide, hydroelectricity supplied an estimated 715,000 MW in 2005. This was approximately 19% of the world's electricity (up from 16% in 2003), and accounted for over 63% of electricity from renewable sources. Hydroelectric plants however have significant impacts on biodiversity and are therefore considered my many environmentalists not to be Eco-friendly.

Nuclear Fusion

Nuclear fusion is the process by which multiple like-charged atomic nuclei join together to form a heavier nucleus. It is accompanied by the release or absorption of energy. Nuclear fusion occurs naturally in stars. Artificial fusion in human enterprises has also been achieved, although not yet completely controlled. Fusion, the reaction that produces the sun's energy, is thought to have enormous potential for future power generation because fusion plant operation produces no emissions, fuel sources are potentially abundant, and it produces relatively little (and short-lived) radioactive waste (as opposed to nuclear fission which is the nuclear power currently harnessed).
High-power reactors such as the ITER (International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor) are now under construction in France and other countries. Physicists estimate that exploitable fusion reactors might be operational within 50 years. The main issue remaining to be resolved concerns the storage and movement of the very hot plasma within the reactor and to make the reaction durable (for now the reaction can only be kept running for about 30 seconds due to the extreme heat generated).

[caption id="attachment_2970" align="alignnone" width="235"] nuclear fusion energy[/caption]

Nuclear fusion is a very promising, clean and sustainable technology which has the potential to power the entire planet by the end of the century. However, for now this technology is not operational. Until it is, other sustainable alternatives must be considered until it is improved.

Coal

This technology involves the removal of a significant part of the CO2 from the coal through chemical and physical means before it is combusted. By doing so, there is much less carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere (up to 80% reduction in emissions). The CO2 removed is stored and then injected back into the Earth’s crust. This technology is debatable as it relies on one of the most polluting fossil fuel energy sources.



 

The idea behind such technology is to try to clean as much as possible the coal burning process which is used by hundreds of thousands of power plants worldwide, while more sustainable alternatives are put into place. This technology should only be used as a temporary solution, as continuing to rely on fossil fuels is a step in the wrong direction. In order to fight climate change, we must completely cease our reliance on fossil fuels and start relying heavily on sustainable energies instead.

Oceans Thermal Energy

If this extraction could be made cost effective on a large scale, it could provide a source of renewable energy needed to deal with energy shortages, and other energy problems. The total energy available is one or two orders of magnitude higher than other ocean energy options such as wave power, but the small magnitude of the temperature difference makes energy extraction comparatively difficult and expensive, due to low thermal efficiency. Earlier OTEC systems had an overall efficiency of only 1 to 3% (the theoretical maximum efficiency lies between 6 and 7%). Current designs under review will operate closer to the theoretical maximum efficiency. There is a lot of potential in the utilization of thermal energy from the oceans. There is an important temperature difference between the bottom of the deep sea and surface temperatures. The Earth's oceans are continually heated by the sun, and cover nearly 70% of the Earth’s surface. This temperature difference contains a vast amount of solar energy which can potentially be harnessed for human use. Ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC) is a method of generating electricity which uses the temperature difference that exists between deep and shallow waters to run a heat engine. As with any heat engine, the greatest efficiency and power is produced with the largest temperature difference. This temperature difference generally increases with decreasing latitude, i.e. near the equator.

Why use market segmentation ?

Why use market segmentation?

The myriad breakfast options available to consumers in a supermarket are not down to manufacturers’ altruistic desire to appeal to everyone’s tastes, but the more prosaic imperative of maximizing profits. Segmented marketing is almost always more commercially effective than mass marketing (that is, where everyone is targeted in a uniform way). This is because:

-Buyers are more inclined to select products and services that appear to be crafted to their requirements.
-Companies can better ‘cut through’ in their marketing if their message resonates and is targeted through relevant channels.
-Companies can be selective and chase only to those parts of the market that they know to be most profitable for them. Choosing exactly who a company wishes (or does not wish) to do business with is perhaps the most important principle of segmentation.
-Some organizations may have a competitive advantage in serving specific parts of the market. For example, national ‘flag-carrier’ airlines that have access to landing slots at the world’s most popular hubs are well-placed to serve the needs of business travelers. By contrast, budget airlines with bases at less-costly provincial or regional airports instead have an advantage in appealing to more price-conscious fliers.
-Segmentation drives innovation. Where the requirements of a segment are not adequately met, having a framework for defining what the market wants or needs catalyses efforts to plug these gaps.

Types of segmentation approach

Geo-demographic segmentation

At its simplest, an organization may choose to segment markets based on location. For example, a multinational company may have different marketing strategies for specific countries or regions.

Demographic approaches capture observable or measurable characteristics about individuals or purchasing units that may have implications for how an offer might be perceived (such as age, gender, household income, education level or occupation). These variables can be taken individually, or combined together to form composite descriptions of a target audience (eg ‘young, wealthy professionals’ or ‘middle-aged, male, blue-collar workers’). Within consumer marketing, it is common for demographics to be used as a basis for defining life stage groups that correspond with specific requirements. For instance, car manufacturers focus cheaper, smaller and more stylish models at younger, newly qualified drivers, whereas retirees instead may be targeted with products and messaging around practicality, reliability and fuel economy. The interface of location and consumer profile gives rise to Geo-demographic approaches, where specific clusters of demographic characteristics occur in combination. with each other. Voting intentions are often linked with age and social class, and so a political party campaigning for public office will closely analyze the demographic composition of a specific electoral area. The soundbites and political policies that are then promoted to the electorate of each region are targeted based on its demographic composition. Messages about schools and childcare will be emphasized where there is a high incidence of families, while there will be a greater focus on healthcare and pensions for areas with older populations. Several market research and marketing information providers have developed segmentation frameworks that describe populations at the neighborhood or postal code level. Acorn (in the United Kingdom) and PRISM (in the United States) are two such commercially available schemes, each with around 60 or 70 distinct segments. This information can be appended to an organization’s customer and marketing databases to assist with local targeting of products and services.

Behavioral segmentation

It is often said that actions speak louder than words. This is no less true in the discipline of market segmentation. A buyer’s habits and observable behaviors can be very strong predictors of their underlying needs. The analysis of one’s behavior is especially powerful because it can reveal insights that research respondents cannot recall or express through conventional surveys. Retailers have long recognized the value in mining purchase behaviors. Many supermarkets use loyalty cards to link a customer’s purchasing patterns and store usage back to individuals. These enormous internal transnational datasets are then analyzed using complex statistical modeling techniques to categorize consumers into segments. This information can then be used to target tailored promotions and special offers at specific groups of shoppers. Behavioral segmentation tend to be highly ‘dynamic’ in the sense that the size and nature of segments may constantly be in flux in response to the latest data. This dynamism has been further accelerated by rapid developments in digital technologies. Brands and digital marketing providers (like Google) have access to a huge amount of constantly updated data regarding the online behavior of individuals. Market research agencies are also now using specialized applications to collect online usage data from opted-in research participants. The data collected from these passive metering techniques then forms the basis for segmentation, often as a complement to survey-based research. At a much simpler level, organizations may also choose to segment their markets based upon the purchasing status of a customer. Those that are current, loyal customers may be grouped and treated differently from recently lost customers, or those whose purchase volumes have steadily decreased over time. For committed customers, the marketer’s chief objective will be take advantage of their loyalty – for instance, by encouraging them to refer the brand to a friend or family member. For lapsed customers, the organization will wish to understand how to win this segment back.

Attitudinal and needs-based segmentation

Arguably the most difficult-to-achieve and implement segmentation is one based upon the buyer’s opinions and needs. Needs-based market segmentation is notoriously challenging because the requirements or beliefs of an individual constantly change (indeed they may even be different from one day to the next). Customer needs are also very difficult to deduce from afar, making it tricky to allocate current or potential customers to segments unless they are asked questions directly. For all the potential pitfalls, needs- and attitudinal-approaches are often the most powerful. The brand that is best able to appeal to the deeper-seated feelings, motivations and concerns of the market is the one that will frequently win out. Many research-driven segmentation have classically been formulated from survey responses to a series of many agree/disagree attitudinal statements that seek to get under the skin of the attitudes of the end-user or buyer. This feedback is often recorded on a 5-, 7- or 10-point Likest scale as in the example below table one(1):



A significant drawback of this approach is that it is possible for respondents to give similar answers to many of the statements, thus limiting the scope for creating distinct segments. In reality, very few segmentation are based upon attitudes alone.

More often, attitudes are used in combination with other variables such as demographics and behavior to imbue descriptive segmentation schemes with more character or ‘personality’. When segmenting the needs of a market, it is typical to measure this through the use of ‘trade-off’ exercises. In any purchase decision, buyers will have one or two purchase criteria that are non-negotiable, some which are of secondary importance and others that are merely ‘nice to have’. To test this in survey research, a list of between 5 and 10 purchase criteria are identified and then evaluated, either using a simple ranking or through a constant-sum scale or points-spend question – as in this example below table 2:



Below is a list of factors that others have said are important when choosing a brand. Please spend 100 points across the factors to indicate their importance to you. You can spend your points on as many or as few issues as you prefer. The list of purchase factors tested can either be based upon the judgment of the researcher and their client, or it can be informed by prior, exploratory research based upon qualitative methods (such as in-depth interviews or focus groups). The constant-sum scale question is well suited to needs-based segmentation exercises because it forces respondents to make compromises between their different requirements in a way that simulates real-world purchase decisions. When the sample size is large enough, the data gathered from this question can then be run through cluster analysis in order to identify respondents with similar response

patterns. The resulting segments tend to be characterized by high scoring on just one or two of the factors, conferring them a clear and distinct profile. The constant sum question is also able to be used in low-sample surveys as common patterns of response can still be deduced qualitatively in a table or spreadsheet. Needs-based trade-offs can also be measured using other statistical techniques:

Business segmentation

Much of the preceding is concerned with the segmentation of consumer markets. Even so, many business-to-business organizations use similar principles in order to segment their markets too. Instead of demographics, the B2B organization typically segments based on what are termed ‘firmographic’ characteristics such as:

-the size of the company (judged by number of employees, revenues, sales or profit margins);
-the industry vertical of the organization;
-channel used to serve the customer (customers served through intermediaries or brokers are usually separated from customers that are sold to directly);
-the future growth potential of an account (even small customers may be considered strategically important if their growth trajectory is ahead of the rest of the market).

The very largest customers of a B2B organization are often small in number, but high in complexity. Adopting a sustainable, segmented approach with large accounts is often impractical, as the requirements of these companies are too specific to be generalized under broad labels. Accordingly, many business-to-business firms use dedicated, key account managers to serve these customers, leaving segmentation techniques to divide and conquer their ‘longer tail’ of smaller companies. Just as in consumer markets, behavioral and needs-based approaches to segmentation are increasingly being embraced by B2B organizations. The researcher should be mindful, however, not to conflate the personal views and preferences of the business decision maker with those of his or her employer.

Hybrid segmentation

Each of the approaches described above has its advantages and drawbacks. Needs based techniques are powerful, but are difficult to implement, while demographic-led techniques are simple but easy for competitors to copy. Companies are increasingly using hybrid segmentation that blend the best aspects of each approach. An effective way of structuring these different segmentation methods is to align them into a grid, where the intersection of different groups of needs, behaviors or demographics defines the segments themselves. This example is based upon a segmentation adopted by a US low-cost airline. Their scheme combines flying behavior (in the columns) with the key needs of different groups of passengers (in the rows):



It is notable that the airline elects not to address certain needs because they do not form part of their business model. The company also chooses to prioritize only three segments of the market where it has the greatest competitive advantage – that is, in serving the needs of frequent travelers and coordinating group bookings. To the occasional traveler or those looking for an upgraded experience, the airline is not necessarily any better than its competitors and so it does not actively market to these segments (although it will take bookings from them).